Squire, et.al.; Fundamental Neuroscience
Book Page   Topic    
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 15 Architecture of the nervous system
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 49 Cellular components of nervous tissue 34
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 79 Subcellular organization of the nervous system: Organelles and their functions 30
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 115 Electrotonic properties of axons and dendrites 36
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 140 Membrane potential and Action potential 25
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 163 Neurotransmitters 23
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 166 The term classical neurotransmitters is used to differentiate acetylcholine, the biogenic amines, and the amino acid transmitters from other transmitters. 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 167 Catecholamines include three transmitters -- dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 176 Serotonin 9
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 179 GABA, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 183 Acetylcholine 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 186 About a dozen classical transmitters and dozens of neuropeptides function as transmitters. 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 186 Several different factors, ranging from intracellular localization of transmitters to the different firing rates and patterns of neurons, probably contribute to the need for multiple transmitters. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 Perhaps the simplest explanation for multiple transmitters is that many afferent nerve terminals synapse onto a single neuron. A neuron must be able to distinguish between the multiple inputs that bring information to it. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 The need to distinguish between multiple inputs to a neuron can be met in part by segregating a place on the neuron at which an input terminates, the soma, axon, dendrite. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 Because many afferents terminate in close proximity, another means of distinguishing inputs and their information is necessary -- chemical coding of the inputs. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 Information conveyed by distinct transmitters is distinguished by the different receptors present on the targeted neuron. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 A single neuron can use more than one neurotransmitter. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 Few, if any, neurons contain only one transmitter, and in many cases three or more transmitters are found in a single neuron. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 The presence of multiple transmitters in a single neuron may indicate that different transmitters are used by a neuron to signal different functional states to its target cell. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 The firing rates of the neurons that terminate on a postsynaptic cell differ considerably, and it may be useful to encode fast firing by one transmitter and slower firing by a transmitter in the cell. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 The firing patterns of neurons is a means of conveying information. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 A neuron firing at five times per second can reflect a neuron discharge every 200 ms or, alternatively, a cell that fires a burst of five discharges during an initial 200 ms, followed by 800 ms of silence. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 Peptide transmitters are often released at higher firing rates and particularly under burst firing patterns. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 Classical transmitters can be replaced rapidly because their synthesis occurs in nerve terminals. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 Peptide transmitters must be synthesized in the cell body and transported to the terminal. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 187 It is useful to conserve peptide transmitters for situations of high demand because they would otherwise be depleted rapidly. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 191 Peptide transmitters differ from classical transmitters by being synthesized in the soma rather than axon terminal. 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 191 Termination of peptide transmitter actions differs from that of classical transmitters, being achieved mainly by enzymatic means and diffusion, and there is much less specificity in the inactivation of peptide transmitters. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 193 Growth factors are a group of proteins that regulate the survival, differentiation, and growth of various cell types, including neurons. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 197 Release of Neurotransmitters 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 259 Intracellular Signaling 62
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Postsynaptic potentials and Synaptic Integration 40
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) in the CNS can be divided into two broad classes on the basis of mechanisms and duration of these potentials. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Ionotropic receptors involved direct binding of a transmitter molecule(s) with the receptor channel complex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Ionotropic PSPs are generally short-lasting and are called fast PSPs. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Metabotropic PSPs involve the indirect binding of a transmitter molecule(s) with a receptor. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Metabotropic PSPs can be long-lasting and are called slow PSPs. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Tap of a neurologist hammer to a ligament elicits a reflex extension of the leg.  Ionotropic PSPs. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 299 Sensory neurons with stomata located in the dorsal root ganglia just outside the spinal column. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 300 Inhibition of the flexion motor neuron tends to prevent an uncoordinated movement. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 300 Transmitter substance at the neuromuscular junction is ACh. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Acetylcholine, glutamate, and lysine remain bound only for a very short period.  These transmitters are removed by diffusion, enzymatic breakdown, reuptake into the presynaptic cell. 12
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 In contrast with fast PSP for which the receptors are actually part of the ion channel complex, channels that produce slow synaptic potentials are not coupled directly to the transmitter receptors.  Rather, the receptors are separated physically and exert their actions indirectly through changes in metabolism of specific second-messenger systems. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 In the cAMP-dependent, slow synaptic responses in Aplysia, transmitter binding to membrane receptors activates G-proteins and stimulates an increase in the synthesis of cAMP. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Cyclic AMP then leads to the activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), which phosphorylates a channel protein associated with the channel. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 A conformational change in the channel is produced, leading to a change in ionic conductance. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Conformational change is produced by protein phosphorylation. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Phosphorylation-dependent channel regulation is a fairly general feature of slow PSPs. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Second messenger systems are slow (seconds to minutes). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Cyclic AMP takes some time to be synthesized, but after synthesis, cAMP levels can remain elevated for a relatively long period (minutes). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Duration of the elevation of cAMP depends on the action of cAMP-phosphodiesterase, which breaks down cAMP. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Response of metabotropic receptors depend on both (1) synthetic and phosphorylation  processes, and (2) degradative and dephosphorylation processes. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Second messengers and protein kinases can diffuse and affect more distant membrane channels. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 312 Protein kinase A can diffuse to the nucleus, where it can activate proteins that regulate gene expression. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 314 In contrast to the rapid responses mediated by ionotropic receptors, responses mediated by the metabotropic receptors are generally relatively slow to develop and persistent. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 314 Metabotropic responses can involve the activation of second-messenger systems. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 314 By producing slow changes in the resting potential, metabotropic receptors provide long-term modulation of the effectiveness of responses generated by ionotropic receptors. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 314 Metabotropic receptors, through the engagement of second-messenger systems, provide a vehicle by which a presynaptic cell can produce widespread changes in the biochemical state of the postsynaptic cell. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 319 Information Processing in Complex Dendrites. 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 339 Brain energy metabolism 20
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 363 Neural induction and Pattern formation 24
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 363 Embryonic origins of the nervous system. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 363 Vertebrate nervous system is a derivative of the ectoderm: one of the three major regions, or germ layers, of the blastula-stage embryo. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 363 As the embryo undergoes gastrulation, two other germ layers, endoderm and mesoderm, invaginate inward, leaving the ectoderm on the surface and converting the embryo into three layers. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 363 Dorsoventral (DV) and anterioposterior (AP) axes 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 363 Early stages of neural development involve processes that divide ectoderm into regions along the DV axis that then give rise to very different tissues, including the nervous system. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 365 Blastula stage, ball of cells 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 365 During gastrulation, mesoderm and endoderm invaginate into the embryos while the ectoderm spreads and covers the outside. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 370 Eye formation 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 Molecular basis of differential cell adhesion may reside within a subfamily of glycoproteins called cadherins. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 Cadherin's intracellular domain connects to the actin-based cytocellular network. Their extracellular domains bind homotypically, mediating the interaction of adjacent cells expressing the same cadherin type. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 Different cadherin types may account for differential adhesion that arises when new tissues form and may account for the differences between subregions of the central nervous system. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 As the neural plate rolls up and closes into a tube, a series of constrictions appear in its wall, subdividing the anterior end of the tube into a series of vesicles representing the fore-, mid-, and hindbrain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 Huge diversity of region-specific cell types, each having a distinct identity in terms of morphology, axonal trajectory, synaptic specificity, and neurotransmitter. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 Different neuronal cell types carry distinctive surface labels that may ensure accuracy of axonal navigation and the formation of appropriate connections with other cells. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 Some young neurons or their precursors are directed to migrate along stereotypic paths to settle in distant locations. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 Activity-dependent processes and regressive events, such as pruning of axons and cell death, later reinforce and refine initial patterns of conductivity, but a high degree of precision is achieved from the outset, resulting from appropriate self-patterning. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 371 How the different regions of the CNS, and the individual cell types they each contain, are assigned their identity in early development remains an outstanding problem and neurobiology. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 372 Homeobox genes encode the positional value of the cell.  In effect, cells measure their position by reading the strength of signals and finally adopt a specific fate that is appropriate for their grid reference in the neuroepithelium. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 391 Neurogenesis and Migration 19
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 417 Cellular Determination 26
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 449 Growth Cones and Axon Pathfinding 32
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 449 Growth Cones Are Actively Guided 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 449 Growth cones crawl forward as they elaborate the axons trailing behind them, and their extension is controlled by cues in their outside environment that ultimately direct them toward their appropriate targets. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 451 In some circumstances, individual axons arborize widely within the target field and initially contact many target cells, only later refining their pattern of connections in a process that depends on precise patterns of electrical activity in the neurons and target cells. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 451 Guidance Cues for Developing Axons 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 451 The trajectories of many axons appear to be broken up into short segments, each perhaps a few microns long. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Axons appear to be guided along their appropriate trajectories by their responses to selectively distributed molecular signals within the developing embryo. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Axon guidance involves the coordinate action of four types of cues --  short range (or local) cues and long-range cues, each of which can be either positive (attractive) or negative (repellent). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Four prominent families of signaling molecules are thought to make significant contributions to axon guidance -- semaphorins, netrins, slits, and ephrins. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Guidance cues come in families, which may in some cases comprise both diffusible members that can function in long-range axon guidance, as well as non-diffusible members functioning at short range. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Many guidance cues are multifunctional, attracting some axons, repelling other axons, and sometimes controlling other aspects of axonal morphogenesis such is axonal branching or arborization. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Different axons may respond to the same cue differently because of differences in their complement of surface receptors or differences in their signal transduction pathways. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Many (although not all) cues are evolutionarily conserved between vertebrates and more primitive invertebrate organisms, with species homologues performing similar roles in axon guidance. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Higher vertebrates typically have many more members within a given family of guidance cues, and the cues likely to have overlapping functions. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 There are currently approximately 20 known distinct semaphorin family members identified in higher vertebrates. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 Roughly a third of the semaphorin secreted molecules have a positively charged terminus that is likely to fasten them to cell surfaces or the extracellular matrix. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 The remaining semaphorins are transmembrane molecules, which are likely to act in the immediate vicinity of the cells that produce them. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 All semaphorin molecules contain the family's signature semaphorin domain, a roughly 500 amino acid domain that is a key signaling element of the semaphorins. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 453 The semaphorin's biological specificity is at least in part determined by a relatively short stretch of amino acids within the semaphorin domain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 The primary receptors for semaphorins are members of the plexin family, transmembrane proteins that are distant relatives of the semaphorins themselves. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Netrins 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 The netrin family is smaller than the semaphorin family, with about half a dozen members identified in vertebrates. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Netrin also appears to function as a long-range repellent, providing a push from behind for a group of axons that grow away from the midline, thus illustrating the bifunctionality of guidance cues. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Netrins are vertebrate homologues of a protein of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a protein similarly involved in both attracting some axons toward the nervous system midline and repelling other axons away from it. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Netrin homologues are also expressed at the midline of the nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster, where they contribute to attracting axons to the midline. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Netrin receptors are members of immunoglobulin gene superfamily. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Netrins and their receptors vividly illustrate the remarkable conservation of axon guidance mechanisms during evolution. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Netrins as long-range guidance cues also illustrate the fact that long-range and short range guidance mechanisms can be closely related. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 455 Although netrins are capable of long-range attraction, they are closely related in structure to one region of the archetypal nondiffusible extracellular matrix. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 456 The axon guidance molecules include members of the immunoglobulin gene family, extracellular matrix components, transmembrane phosphatases, and cadherins. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 456 Guidance Cues and the control of Actin Polymerization 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 456 Guidance cues are signaling molecules that influence cell biological mechanisms by which growth cones extended, turn, and retract. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 456 The forward crawling motion of a growth cone depends on its own intrinsic motile mechanism interacting with a permissive outside environment. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 456 Guidance cues can affect the direction of growth cone advance by controlling actin polymerization that drives protrusion of the leading edge of the growth cone. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 456 A dense meshwork of fibrillar actin is concentrated at the leading age of the growth cone. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 456 New actin polymerization just behind the leading-edge effectively helps push it forward. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 459 Interactions between Cytoskeleton and Guidance Receptors 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 462 Guidance at the Midline -- Changing Responses to Multiple Cues 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 463 Netrins have a conserved function in attracting axons to the nervous system midline. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 469 Target selection, Topographic maps, and Synapse formation 6
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 470 Exuberant Axonal Connections and Collateral Elimination 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 470 The development of many axonal projections in the brain is characterized by an initially exuberant, or widespread, growth of axons, followed by the elimination of functionally inappropriate axon segments and branches. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 492 Synapse Formation in the Central Nervous System 22
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 492 Neurons in the central nervous system typically receive thousands of synapses employing a variety of neurotransmitters. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 492 In the first contact between axons and their neuronal targets, cells can express both pre-and postsynaptic components prior to synapse formation. The earliest contacts may be mediated by filopodia that extend from either growing axons or dendrites. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 492 Activity is likely to play an important role in regulating the behavior of filopodia. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 492 The effects of activity in regulating the behavior of filopodia are likely to be complex, as the motility and morphology of dendritic spines can be regulated differentially by synaptic activity. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 496 The diversity of synapses in the nervous system is likely to be matched by an equally diverse array of mechanisms producing the synapses. 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 499 Programmed cell death and neurotrophic factors 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 500 Major events in the discovery and characterization of nerve growth factors and their importance for understanding neuronal cell death   (table) 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 502 Nerve growth factor -- the prototype target-derived neuronal survival factor. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 507 Neurotrophin Receptors 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 507 Nerve growth factor binds to a relatively small number of very high affinity binding sites and a second set of about 10-fold more abundant, but lower affinity, binding sites at higher concentrations. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 509 Neurotrophin Family and Its Receptors (table) 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 510 Cytokines and Growth Factors in the Nervous System 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 510 Cytokines mediates cell interactions both outside and within the nervous system. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 510 Although some aspects of communication between neurons, including synaptic transmission in neurotrophin signaling, are highly specialized and largely restricted to the nervous system, others are not. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 510 All vertebrate organs and tissues regulate growth and maintenance through diffusible signaling molecules. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 511 Cytokines and Growth Factors Families (table) 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 511 Neurotrophic Factors Have Multiple Activities 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 511 Neurotrophic factors that prevent neuronal death during development appear to have many other important biological activities, including effects on cell proliferation, migration, differentiation, axonal growth and sprouting, alterations in dendritic arbors, and functional plasticity of the nervous system. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 517 Programmed cell death of neurons is widespread in invertebrate and vertebrate species. 6
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 525 Programmed cell death is regulated by interactions with targets, afferents, and nonneuronal cells. 8
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 533 Synapse Elimination 8
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 537 A Role for Interaxonal Competition 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 541 Spatial patterning of connectivity by synapse elimination 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 545 Activity Is Required for Synapse Elimination 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 556 Early experience and Critical periods 11
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 577 Fundamentals of Sensory Systems 21
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 591 Sensory Transduction 14
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 631 Taste and Olfaction 40
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 668 Somatosensory system 37
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 699 Audition 31
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 700 Drawing of the Auditory Periphery (diagram), external ear middle ear, inner ear -- three middle ear ossicles: malleus, incus, stapes -- inner ear: cochlea of the auditory system, semi circular canals of the vestibular system. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 The function of the middle ear is to ensure efficient transmission of sound from air into the fluid of the inner ear. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 Then middle ear begins at the tympanic membrane (eardrum), continues with the three middle ear ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes), and ends at the footplate of the stapes, which contacts the inner ear fluid at the oval window of the cochlea. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 Because the area of the eardrum is larger (by about 35 times) than the area of the stapes footplate, there is a corresponding increase in pressure from the eardrum to the stapes footplate. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 The mechanism of the ossicles of the middle ear provide a pressure gain of about 20 to 30 dB in the middle frequencies over what would be achieved by sound striking the oval window directly. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 When sound conduction through the middle ear is compromised, a patient has a conductive hearing loss. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 The inner ear is located deep within the head. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 The inner ear contains the cochlea, which is the sensory organ for the auditory system. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 The sensory organ of the cochlea, the organ of Corti, contains the receptor cells (hair cells) and supporting cells. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 701 The organ of Corti rests on the basilar membrane and is covered by the tectorial membrane. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 702 Sound-induced vibrations of the middle ear are transmitted into the cochlea fluids and then to the basilar membrane and organ of Corti. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 The contribution of outer hair cells to boost the response of the basilar membrane as led investigators to designate the outer hair cells as a "cochlea amplifier" of basilar membrane motion. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 Amplification is a key function for outer hair cells. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 Hair cells transduce the mechanical energy of sound into electrical receptor potentials when hair cells stereocilia are displaced. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 In the sound stimulated cochlea, stereocilia are deflected when the tectorial membrane, which overlies of stereocilia, moves differently than the bodies of the hair cells in the organ of Corti on top of the basilar membrane. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 The tips of outer hair cell stereocilia may contact the tectorial membrane directly, whereas the tips of inner hair cells stereocilia may end just beneath the tectorial membrane and be displaced by fluid movements caused by motion of the tectorial membrane. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 Within the inner ear, fluids are contained in three compartments known as scalae -- scala tympani, scala media, and scala vestibuli. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 The scalae extend in parallel along the length of the cochlea from the base to the apex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 The organ of Corti, which contains the hair cells, is located at the junction between endolymph and perilymph. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 703 Endolymph increases the sensitivity of the hair cells. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 704 Sensorineural hearing loss often results from damage to hair cells. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 704 Cochlear Implants 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 705 Auditory Nerve 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 705 Hair cells receive there innervation from neurons of the spiral ganglion, located in the central core of the cochlea. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 705 Primary auditory neurons send peripheral axons to the hair cells and central axons into the brain by way of the auditory nerve, a subdivision of the eighth cranial nerve. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Two types of afferent neurons separately innervate the inner and outer hair cells. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Type I neurons send processes to contact inner hair cells, almost always contacting a single hair cell. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Type II neurons are thin and unmyelinated and transmit information much more slowly. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Both type I and type II afferent fibers project centrally into the cochlear nucleus in the brainstem. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Type I neurons total about 95% of the afferent population (about 30,000 in humans), whereas type II neurons total only about 5%. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Outer hair cells, which number over three-quarters of the receptor cell population, are innervated by only a small minority of the afferent neurons. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 The functional role for the inner hair cells and type I neurons is to serve as the main channel for sound-evoked information flow into the brain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 The functional role for the outer hair cells is to serve as the cochlear amplifier and enhance basilar membrane sensitivity and tuning and to increase the sensitivity of inner hair cell and type I responses. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Outer hair cells do make a large contribution to information sent to the brain, and this contribution is via the inner cells and type I neurons. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Outer hair cells may also transmit information to the brain via their type II afferent neurons. What type of information these type II neurons transmit is unknown. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 706 Auditory responses are sharply tuned to frequency. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 The information available to the brain via the auditory nerve is determined by which nerve fibers are responding and the rate and time pattern of the spikes in each fiber. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 Graphs of minimum sound pressure level for a neural response are known as tuning curves. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 The lowest point on the tuning curve is a characteristic frequency (CF). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 At low sound levels, the tuning curve is very narrow, indicating that the fiber responds only to a narrow band of frequencies near the characteristic frequency. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 The sharply tuned to a region of the tuning curve is likely generated by the active motility of the outer hair cells. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 At high sound levels, the tuning curve becomes much wider, especially for frequencies below the characteristic frequency. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 The response to a broad range of frequencies likely reflects the passive mechanical characteristics of basilar membrane motion with little contribution from outer hair cells. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 Phase locking of responses is a property of auditory nerve fibers. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 Responses of auditory nerve fibers can show time locked discharges at particular phases within the cycle of a sound waveform, a property known as phase locking. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 707 Although locked to a particular phase, there is generally not a spike for every waveform peak. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 Phase locking decreases for frequencies above 1 to 3 kHz. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 For low frequencies, phase-locked information is carried by auditory nerve fibers to the brain stem. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 A temporal code for sound frequency may be important for low sound frequencies where phase locking is robust. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 Phase locking is diminished at high frequencies were coding for sound frequency is almost certainly via a place code. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 The response of a single auditory nerve fiber increases with sound level until the point at which the rate of the fiber is saturated. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 The dynamic range over which the rate of most fibers increases is generally between 20 and 30 dB, with some fibers showing somewhat greater dynamic ranges. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 How can the auditory nerve signal the large range in level of audible sound from 0 to 100 dB? 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 It is likely that as the sound level increases, more and more fibers that are tuned to other characteristic frequencies began to respond, because tuning curves become broader at higher sound levels. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 Auditory nerve fibers vary in their sensitivity to sound, and as sound level increases, the less sensitive fibers begin to respond. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 708 Sensitivity of fibers at a given characteristic frequency varies by as much as 70 dB. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 The spontaneous rate of firing is the rate when there is no stimulus. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 Spontaneous rates of firing vary from one fiber to another over the range of 0 to 100 spikes/sec. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 Although there may be a continuum of spontaneous rates, three main groups of fibers have been defined. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 Low spontaneous rates  --  <0.5 spikes/sec. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 Medium spontaneous rates  --  0.5 to 17.5 spikes/sec. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 High spontaneous rates  --  >17.5 spikes/sec. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 The groups of spontaneous firing rates predict many physiological and anatomical characteristics of auditory nerve fibers. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 High spontaneous rate fibers have higher sensitivities than medium and low spontaneous rate fibers. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 Low and medium spontaneous rate fibers give off the largest number of terminals in the cochlear nucleus of the brainstem. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 Low spontaneous rate fibers may be less sensitive, but they likely play important roles in detecting changes in sounds at high sound levels. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 709 Low spontaneous rate fibers can signal changes at high sound levels because their low sensitivity causes them to respond mostly at higher sound levels and because they have less tendency to saturate. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 710 Olivocochlear afferents alter the responses of hair cells and nerve fibers. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 710 Almost all hair cell systems have abundant efferent innervations of the sensory endorgans. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 710 Cochlear afferent neurons have cell bodies in the superior olivary complex of the brainstem and project to the cochlea. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 711 Auditory pathways are tonotopically organized. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 711 Simplified schematic of the pathways of the ascending auditory system of a generalized mammal. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 727 Vision 16
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 755 Fundamentals of Motor Systems 28
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 757 Central Pattern Generating networks (CPGs). -- (diagram) 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 759 Location of different central pattern generator (CPG) networks that coordinate premotor patterns in vertebrates. -- (diagram) 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 767 Spinal cord, Muscle, and Locomotion 8
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 776 Motor programs within the spinal cord. 9
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 776 Spinal central pattern generating circuits (CPGs). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 776 CPG's provide a framework for understanding rhythmic movements that are performed relatively automatically, such as breathing, chewing, scratching, and walking. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 776 CPG movements rely heavily on spinal interneuron networks to coordinate the timing and sequence of activation and innervation between motor neuron pools innervating different muscles. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 777 Breathing relies heavily on brain stem and spinal CPGs. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 779 Building blocks of CPG's 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 779 Mutually excitatory connections between cells promote synchronous firing, whereas mutually inhibitory connections tend to produce oscillations. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 779 Membrane properties, arising from the receptors and ion channels of individual neurons, can be used flexibly to produce rhythmic activity because their efficacy can be modulated by synaptic activity. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 779 At least some neurons in the network will have the capacity to generate bursts of spikes, prolonged polarizations, or endogenous oscillations.  This occurs because some neurons may express voltage- or activity-dependent ion channels, which serve as pacemakers. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 779 Pattern generation emerges as the total activity of the components of a network  -- the same network may produce different rhythms through combinations or functional reconfiguration of the components. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 780 Locomotor CPGs in mammals are distributed along several spinal segments. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 792 Descending control of movement 12
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 793 Vestibular canals (diagram) 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 793 Vestibular plasticity.  "sea legs", astronauts 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 806 Somatotopic organization in the motor cortex. 13
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 815 Basal ganglia and cerebellum send the output via the thalamus to the cortical motor systems. 9
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 815 Basal ganglia and cerebellum connect to separate areas of the thalamus. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 815 Basal ganglia and cerebellum have opposite effects -- basal ganglia output is inhibitory; cerebellar output is excitatory. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 815 Basal ganglia and cerebellum have roles in non-motor behavior, including cognition, emotion, and possibly others. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 815 Basal ganglia are large subcortical structures comprising several interconnected nuclei in the forebrain, midbrain, and diencephalon. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 815 Location of basal ganglia in the human brain (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 815 Subthalamic nucleus -- diagram 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 816 Basal ganglia receive a broad spectrum of cortical inputs. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 816 Basal ganglia include the striatum (caudate, putamen, nucleus accumbens), the subthalamic nucleus (STN), the globus pallidus (internal segment or GPi; external segment or GPe; and ventral pallidum), and the substantia nigra (pars compact or SNpc and pars reticular or SNpr). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 816 Basal Ganglia 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 817 Striatum and STN receive the majority of inputs from outside the basal ganglia. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 817 Most inputs to the basal ganglia come from the cerebral cortex, but thalamic nuclei also provide strong inputs to the striatum. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 817 No direct inputs to basal ganglia from peripheral sensory or motor systems. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 817 Bulk of outputs from basal ganglia arises from GPi and SNpr and is inhibitory to thalamic nuclei into brain stem. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 817 Striatum is located in the forebrain and comprises the caudate nucleus and putamen (neostriatum) and nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 817 Named striatum because axon fibers passing through the striatum give it a striped appearance. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 Striatum receives excitatory input from nearly all of the cerebral cortex. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 Projection from the cerebral cortex to the striatum has a roughly topographical organization. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 Within the somatosensory and motor projection to the striatum, there is a preservation of somatotopy. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 Although the topography and  somatotopy imply a certain degree of parallel organization, there is also convergence and divergence in the corticostriatal projection. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 The convergent and divergent organization provides an anatomical framework for the integration and transformation of information from several areas of the cerebral cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 Striatal neurons also receive inputs from intralaminar and ventrolateral nuclei of the thalamus. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 Striatal neurons also receive a large input from dopamine (DA)-containing neurons and the SNpc. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 818 Location of dopaminergic terminals puts them in a position to modulate transmission from the cerebral cortex to the striatum. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 819 Five types of G protein-coupled DA receptors. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 819 Hypothetical parallel segregated circuits connecting the basal ganglia, thalamus, and cerebral cortex. (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 823 Disagreement among basal ganglia experts whether to view the overall anatomic organization of the basal ganglia as convergent or multiple parallel segregated loops. 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 825 Gpi and SNpr form the output of the basal ganglia. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 825 Neurons in the basal ganglia output structures are tonically active with average firing rates of 60 to 80 Hz. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 825 Basal ganglia output structures are organized somatotopically with the leg and arm in GPi and the face and eyes in SNpr. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 826 Changes in the activity of basal ganglia occur at the onset of movement, but after the muscles are already active, they are unlikely to initiate movement. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 827 Putamen is inactivated unilaterally -- result is slightly slow movement of the contralateral limb. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 827 Although movement is slow after putamen lesions, reaction time is generally normal, indicating movement initiation is intact. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 827 Huntington's disease (HD) -- marked loss of neurons in the striatum.  -- Chorea; frequent, brief, sudden, random twitch-like movements that involve all parts of the body and resemble fragments of normal voluntary movement. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 827 Mechanism for chorea -- disinhibition of GPE neurons causes inhibition of STN and GPi, resulting in abnormal overactivity of motor cortical and brainstem mechanisms. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 832 Basal ganglia are active relatively late in relation to movement. 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 833 Inhibitory output neurons fire tonically at high frequencies. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 833 Output of the basal ganglia is analogous to a brake. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 833 When a movement is initiated by particular motor pattern generator, GPi neurons projecting to that generator decrease their discharge, thereby removing the tonic inhibition and "releasing the break" on that generator. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 834 GPi neurons projecting to other movement pattern generators increase their firing rate, thereby increasing inhibition and applying a "brake" on those generators. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 834 Basal ganglia participate in a variety of non-motor functions, including functions of the limbic system and cognitive functions. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 834 Outputs of the basal ganglia go to all areas of the frontal cortex, placing the basal ganglia in a position to influence a wide variety of behaviors. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 834 Basal ganglia have been implicated in a variety of non-motor disorders, including depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and schizophrenia. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 834 Intrinsic circuitry is the same for cognitive and motor parts of the basal ganglia. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 834 Chorea is characterized by excessive involuntary movements; obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by excessive involuntary thoughts and complex behaviors. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 835 Long-term potentiation and long-term depression in striatal neurons are likely to play an important role in learning. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 835 Huntington's disease 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 836 Obsessive-compulsive disorder 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 837 Tourette's syndrome (TS) 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 838 Other brain structures have been implicated in procedural learning, including the cerebellum. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 841 Cerebellum 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 842 Dorsal view of cerebellum and brain stem -- caudate nucleus, putamen, internal capsule, thalamus, vermis, cerebellar peduncle. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 842 Cerebellum is connected to the brain stem bilaterally by three cerebellar peduncles, which carry information to and from the cerebellum. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 842 In humans, fibers of the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles carry approximately 0.8, 20, and 0.5 million fibers respectively. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 843 Cerebellar microcircuitry is largely homogeneous across the surface. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 843 Cerebral cortex is a three-layered, folded sheet of gray matter, only 1 mm thick and largely homogeneous throughout the whole cerebellum. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 843 Cerebellar cortex contains a single type of efferent neuron, the Purkinje cell, which are inhibitory and project to the cerebellar nucleus and to the vestibular nucleus, and five main classes of interneuron, three of which are inhibitory. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 843 Cerebellar microcircuitry -- transverse view: (1) molecular layer, (2) Purkinje cell layer, (3) granular layer, (4) white matter.  (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 844 Cerebellar cortex receives two main types of afferents: (1) mossy fibers, (2) climbing fibers. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 845 Dendritic tree of the Purkinje cell arises from the apex of the cell body and branches profusely in the molecular layer. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 845 Dendritic tree of the Purkinje cell is fan shaped, like a tree trained to grow flat against a railing, and extends in a plane perpendicular to the main axis of the folium. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 845 Granular layer contains an enormous number (billions) of granule cells, which are the smallest neurons found in the brain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 845 Cerebellar granule cells outnumber the sum of all other neurons in the central nervous system. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 845 Axons of granular cells ascend into the molecular layer where they bifurcate to form parallel fibers which may reach a length of 6-8 mm. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 845 Cerebellar modular signal processing scheme (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 847 Complexity is a collective property whose source is to be found in connectivity. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 847 Recursive networks incorporate feedback loops to sustain iterative dynamical processes based on continuous update of network state. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 849 Microcircuitry in similar across the entire cerebellum, suggesting that signal processing operations are modular. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 850 Climbing fibers arise from the inferior olive, which is a complex of larger and smaller subnuclei located in the ventral medulla oblongata. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 853 Innervation of a Purkinje cell by an individual climbing fiber, virtually climbing all of the proximal dendrites and making multiple excitatory synapses. 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 853 Purkinje Cells (PCs) have two characteristic types of discharge: (1) repetitive simple spikes that are mediated by parallel fiber (PF) input and (2) occasional complex spikes that are mediated by climbing fiber (CF) input. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 854 Cells and circuitry of the cerebellar cortex (diagram) 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 856 Mossy fiber signals that conveys state information to the cerebellum. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 856 Mitochondria that fuel the manufacturing of vesicles. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 856 Golgi cell inhibition appears to function like an automatic gain control, normalizing the amount of PF input so as not to overwhelm the PCs, but at the same time allowing the PS state vector to express many diverse patterns. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 856 MF-granule cell system should create an expanded representation of state that is kept sparse by Golgi inhibition. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 856 Short-term storage of state information about the orientation of the organism that is characteristic of the vestibulocerebellum. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 857 CF pathway originates in the inferior olive of the brain stem. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 857 Inferior olive cells display of electrical activity, analogous to that present in the heart -- action potentials with long plateaus followed by a long refractory periods -- causing CFs to fire at very low rates (irregular at about 1/s) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 857 Combined excitatory and inhibitory input helps signal the occurrences of errors. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 857 Olivary cells are coupled to each other electrotonically and show a slight tendency to oscillate at approximately 10 Hz. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 862 Classically conditioned reflex -- one of the first forms of learning to be analyzed neurobiologically. 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 862 Conditioned eye blink reflex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 862 Plasticity in the cerebellum is probably only responsible for adjusting the metrics of the motor response and not for making the associative link between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 867 Development of the climbing fiber-Purkinje cell pathway (diagram) 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 867 After the Purkinje cells have reached the cortical plate, climbing fibers enter the cerebellum from the inferior olive and began to innervate the Purkinje cells, with each Purkinje cell receiving input from several climbing fibers.  Much later, most of the climbing fiber contacts with the Purkinje cells will be eliminated, leaving a private line of one climbing fiber per Purkinje cell. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 867 Extend toward the underlying Purkinje cells, utilizing the radial Bergmann fibers as  a scaffold. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 867 Granule cell emits short processes or protodendrites that search the developing mossy fiber terminals to establish connections.  Successively, some of the protodendrites are pruned. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 869 Cerebellar development: (1) Motor side of the cerebral circuit (deep nuclear cells and Purkinje cells) forms first.  (2) Sensory side of the cerebral circuit (mossy fibers (MFs) and climbing fibers (CFs)) forms next.  (3) Matrix that connects the two (the granule cells and the intrinsic inhibitory neurons) is the last to develop. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Cerebellum is critical also for thought, behavior, and emotion. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 PET and fMRI in humans have revealed sites of activation in the cerebellum in a number of cognitive tasks. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Topographic organization of the sites within the cerebellum activated by a different cognitive processes. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Interactions between a mossy and climbing fiber systems prompted the hypothesis that the cerebellum provides an error detection mechanism for the motor system. This mechanism may also be relevant for mental operations. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Cerebellum is able to subserve cognitive functions because it is anatomically interconnected with the associative and paralympic cortices. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Cognitive and behavioral functions are organized topographically within the cerebellum. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Cerebellar contribution to cognition is one of modulation rather than generation. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Cerebellum performs computations for cognitive functions similar to those for the sensorimotor system -- but the information being modulated is different. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Disruption of the cerebellar influences on higher functions leads to dysmetria of thought. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Cerebellum appears to be the most sophisticated signal processing structure of the brain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Cerebellum regulates functions that are localized in other parts of the brain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Through its many mossy fibers and granule cells, Purkinje cells are presented with an enormously diverse input that reflects the state of the body, the state of the environment, and the internal state of the brain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 870 Through the training influence of its climbing fibers, Purkinje cells learn to detect the occurrences of complex patterns of state, which mark the times at which they need to use their powerful inhibition to shape cerebellar output in order to regulate populations of neurons in other parts of the brain. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 871 Oldest modules of the cerebellum regulate the motor commands that orient the eyes and head. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 871 Newest modules in the cerebellum, located in the hemispheres, regulate signals in the cerebral cortex that plan, perceive, and solve problems. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 873 Eye movements 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 897 Hypothalamus: overview of regulatory systems 24
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 913 Central control of Autonomic functions: Organization of the Autonomic Nervous System 16
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 935 Neural regulation of the Cardiovascular system 22
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 967 Neural control of Breathing 32
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 991 Food intake and Metabolism 24
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1011 Water intake and Body Fluids 20
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1031 Neuroendocrine systems 20
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1067 Circadian timing 36
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1085 Sleep, dreaming, and wakefulness 18
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1105 Visual pathways -- (1) what an object is, occipitotemporal or ventral processing stream; (2) where an object is; occipitoparietial, dorsal processing stream. 20
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1106 In humans there is a requirement for sleep immediately following learning. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1109 Motivation and reward 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1121 Less is known about the role of the amygdala  in positive affective functions than in its role in aversive functions. 12
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1121 Portions of the amygdala function in associated processes that contribute appetitive behavior. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1124 Motivational and emotional information processing occurs and limbic and cortical regions -- (diagram) 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1124 Anterior cingulate, nucleus accumbens, mediodorsal thalamic nucleus "loop" for motivation.-- (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1124 "Joggers high" 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1125 Neural systems controlling aversive motivation are probably distinct from those controlling appetitive motivation. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1125 Motivation is a complex behavioral process that depends on internal stimuli (homeostasis) and by external incentives dependent on learning. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1125 Neural control of motivational processes is distributed throughout the brain and is powerfully modulated by the activity of neurotransmitters systems such a dopamine. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1127 Drug reward and addiction 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1147 Human brain evolution 20
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1151 Homology and analogy 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1152 Not the case that one opinion is as good as the next, although such a view has allowed poorly founded theories to persist. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1153 Evolutionary origin of neocortex. (diagram) 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 Nothing quite like the neocortex exists in reptiles. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 All living mammals have a thick cortex that is divided into layers having different cell types and packing densities. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 Six layers of cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 Layer 4 receives activating inputs from the thalamus or from other parts of the cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 Layer 3 communicates with other regions of the cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 Layer 5 projects to subcortical structures. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 Deepest layer 6 sends feedback to the thalamic nuclei or cortical area providing activating inputs. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1154 Neocortex has changed by diversifying its neuron types, differentiating its laminar structure in various ways, altering connections, changing in overall size and in the sizes of individual cortical areas, adding cortical areas, and dividing areas into specialized modular processing units or cortical  columns. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1159 Evolution of apes and humans (diagram) 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1167 Brain maturation progresses well into adolescence. 8
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1167 Cognitive development and aging 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1187 Dyslexia 20
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1199 Epilepsy 12
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1201 Visual perception of objects 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1203 Object Recognition -- inferior temporal (IT) cortex. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1215 Human brain has ventral and dorsal processing streams. 12
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1218 Prosopagnosia -- specific deficit of face recognition. 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1223 Prosopagnosia, a selective deficit in recognizing faces, is associated with damage to the occipitotemporal cortex, including the fusiform gyrus. 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1224 Faces -- cortical representation appears to be relatively circumscribed.  Objects -- represented by a distributed pattern of activity across a broad expanse of ventral temporal cortex. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1229 Spatial cognition 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1245 Hippocampus -- primitive cortex, allocortex, underside of the temporal lobe. 16
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1249 Attention 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1253 The network mediating spatial attention in humans centers around frontal and parietal cortical areas. 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1253 Spatial neglect in humans can result from unilateral lesions at several cortical sites, most notably the parietal lobe, frontal lobe, and anterior cingulate cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1253 A highly interconnected fronto-cingulo-parietal network is crucial for the control of spatial attention. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1253 The parietal, frontal, and cingulate cortices are sites of heavy sensory and motor convergence. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1253 The network mediating spatial attention has access to limbic system information regarding motivational value or behavioral significance. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1253 At this subcortical level, lesions of the basal ganglia or the pulvinar thalamic nucleus, which is heavily connected with the parietal cortex, can also cause neglect. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1271 Panic disorder 18
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1275 Learning and Memory: Basic Mechanisms 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1276 Classical conditioning -- procedure introduced by Pavlov 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1277 Eric Kandel, Aplysia, Nobel Prize 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1286 LTP occurs in a variety of neural synapses. 9
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1286 Schematic of a hippocampal brain slice.  (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1286 Schematic of transverse hippocampal brain slice from rat (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1289 Postsynaptic spine, LTP, LTD. (diagram) 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1289 Schematic depicts a postsynaptic spine with events leading to LTP or LTD with various sources of Ca2+.  (diagram) 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1291 LTP is not the exclusive means for the expression of neuronal plasticity associated with learning and memory. 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1291 Enhancement of excitability of sensory neurons.  Short-term and long-term sensitization and classical conditioning. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1292 Schematic representation of possible loci for cellular changes involved in the enhancement of synaptic efficacy. (diagram) 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1295 Autoassociation network for recognition memory.  (diagram) 3
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1299 Learning and Memory: Brain systems 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1301 Case of amnesic patient HM 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1303 Current conception of the major memory systems in the brain (diagram) 2
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Declarative memory 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Studies of HM and other amnesic patients reveal characteristics of memory dependent on the hippocampus and surrounding cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Amnesia patients can remember material learned long before the accident, disease, or operation that caused the amnesia. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Memory for language and childhood events are intact in the amnesia patients. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 The capacity for short-term memory (working memory) is typically intact in amnesia patients. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 The "span" of short-term memory is normal in amnesia patients. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Memory deficit in amnesia patients is evident as soon as immediate memory span is exceeded or after a delay is interposed that includes some distraction to interrupt rehearsal. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Deficit in forming long-term memories is specific to declarative memory in amnesia patients. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Amnesia patients are impaired at learning specific personal events (episodic memory) and at learning new facts (semantic memory). 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Amnesia patients are impaired whenever the memory task requires the explicit expression of memory, as in free recall or recognition. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Amnesia patients demonstrate normal acquisition of a broad variety of tasks that involve implicit expression of biases, skills, or habits. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Amnesia patients can demonstrate robust "priming," an increase in speed or ability to reproduce recently perceive stimuli, even when they cannot recall or recognize the previously studied items. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1304 Amnesia patients can perform perfectly normally in the acquisition of motor skills. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 The declarative memory system is composed of three major components -- cerebral cortical areas, a collection of cortical areas surrounding the hippocampus, and the hippocampus itself. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 Cerebral cortical areas involved in declarative memory are comprised of diverse and widespread "association" regions that are both a source of information to the hippocampal region and the targets of hippocampal output. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 Cortical regions involved in declarative memory project to the cortical region adjacent to the hippocampus, including the perrirhinal cortex, the parahippocampal cortex and entorhinal cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 The cortical region adjacent to the hippocampus serves as a convergence site for input from the cortical association areas and mediates the distribution of cortical afferents to the hippocampus. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 Cortical areas adjacent to the hippocampus send major efferents to multiple subdivisions of the hippocampus itself, i.e. the dentate gyrus, the CA3 and CA1 areas, and the subiculum.. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 Within the hippocampus, there are broadly divergent and convergent connections that mediate a large network of associations. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 Connections within the hippocampus support forms of long term potentiation that could participate in the rapid coding of novel conjunctions of information. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1305 The outcomes of hippocampal processing are directed back to the adjacent cortical areas, and the outputs of that region are directed in turn back to the same cortical areas in the cerebral cortex that were the source of the inputs. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310 The term consolidation characterizes two kinds of brain events that affect the stability of memory after learning. 5
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310 One consolidation event involves a fixation of plasticity within synapses over a period of minutes or hours through a sequence of protein synthesis and morphological changes in synapses. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310 Another consolidation event involves a reorganization of memories, which occurs over weeks to years following new learning. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310 The prolonged consolidation occurs in the declarative memory system and is thought to involve interactions between the medial temporal region and the cerebral cortex. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310 Long-term retention is impaired if damage to the hippocampus or adjacent cortex occurrs shortly after learning. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310  If damage to the hippocampus or adjacent cortex is delayed by several days or weeks, subjects perform normally. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310 A process involving the hippocampus or the surrounding cortical region is required for post learning processing over a period of at least several days. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1310 Widespread areas of the neocortex contain the details of the information that is to be remembered, and medial temporal area support the capacity to retrieve the memory during this period shortly after learning. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 Medial temporal areas reactivate the cortical representations repeatedly, inducing plasticity and intra-cortical connections that provide the permanent linkages and organization of the cortical memory. 1
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 The same representational function the hippocampus provides in encoding and linking episodic memories at the time of learning continues for a period to support the establishment of intracortical linkages of memories within a large-scale memory network. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 Structures important for declarative memory include association areas of the neocortex, the cortical regions surrounding the hippocampus, and the hippocampus. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 Procedural memory 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 Procedural memory underlies the habits, skills, and sensori-motor adaptations that occur constantly in the background of all of our intentional and planned behavior.  Because this kind of memory generally falls outside of consciousness, we take it for granted. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 Procedural memory is mediated by two anatomically and functionally distinct subsystems. One type involves the acquisition of habits and skills, the capacity for a broad variety of stereotyped and unconscious behavioral repertoires.  The other type of procedural memory involves specific sensory-to-motor adaptations and adjustments of reflexes. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 Acquisition of habits and skills can involve simple refinements of particular, often-repeated motor patterns, and can extend to the learning of long action sequences in response to highly complex stimuli. They include both the acquisition of skills (e.g. skiing, piano playing) and the unique elements of personal style and tempo.  A key structure of this subsystem is the neostratum, a major components of the basal ganglia. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1311 Sensory-to-motor adaptations and adjustments of reflexes includes changing the force that one exerts to compensate for a new load or acquiring conditioned reflexes that involve associating novel motor responses to a new stimulus.  A key structure of this subsystem is the cerebellum. 0
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1315 Emotional memory 4
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1329 Search 14
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1353 Prefrontal cortex and executive brain functions 24
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1367 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 14
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1377 Executive control and thought 10
Squire; Fundamental Neuroscience 1385 Schizophrenia 8
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