Kandel; Search of Memory
Book	Page		Topic
Kandel; Search of Memory	59		Biology of nerve cells -- three principles: (1) neuron doctrine states that the nerve cell is the fundamental building block and elementary signaling unit of the brain, (2) ionic hypothesis focuses on the transmission of information within the nerve cell, (3) chemical theory of synaptic transmission focuses on the transmission of information between nerve cells.
Kandel; Search of Memory	60		Chemical theory of synaptic transmission focuses on the transmission of information between nerve cells.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	61		British physiologist Charles Sherrington		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	61		Unlike most of the cells of the body, which have a simple shape, nerve cells have highly irregular shapes and are surrounded by a multitude of exceedingly fine extensions of axons and dendrites.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	62		Axons and dendrites are extremely thin (about 10-2 the thickness of a human hair).		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	63		Neuron in the hippocampus (drawn by Cajal)		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	70		Charles Sherrington  (1857-1952) photo.		7
Kandel; Search of Memory	91		Electrical versus chemical theory of synaptic transmission "sparkers" versus "soupers".		21
Kandel; Search of Memory	95		Three pioneers of synaptic transmission: Stephen Kuffler (1918 -1980), John Eccles 1903 -1997), Bernard Katz (1911 -2002). photo		4
Kandel; Search of Memory	96		Greatest strength of the scientific method is its ability to disprove a hypothesis. Science proceeds by endless and ever refining cycles of conjecture and refutation.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	98		Myasthenia gravis, a serious autoimmune disease that occurs primarily in men, produces antibodies that destroy the acetylcholine receptors in muscle cells and thus weakens muscle action. Muscular weakness can become so severe that patients cannot keep their eyes open.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	99		Major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain is the amino acid glutamate. Main inhibitory transmitter is the amino acid GABA.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	99		A variety of tranquilizing drugs -- benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol, and general anesthetics -- bind to GABA receptors and produce a calming effect on behavior by enhancing the receptor's inhibitory function.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	99		Eccles wrote, "I had been encouraged by Karl Popper to make my hypothesis as precise as possible, so that it would call for experimental attack and falsification, It turned out that it was I who was to succeed in this falsification."		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	101		Bernard Katz discovered that neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine are not released from the axon terminal as single molecules but in small discrete packets containing about 5000 molecules each.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	102		Bernard Katz discovered that when an action potential enters a presynaptic terminal, it causes calcium channels to open, letting calcium ions flow into the cell. This leads to the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	105		Serotonin acts on as many as 18 different types of receptors throughout the brain. LSD seems to produce its hallucinatory actions by stimulating one of these receptors located in the frontal lobe of the brain.		3
Kandel; Search of Memory	107		An anatomically simple system is crucial to the success of a biological experiment. Invertebrate animals are a rich source of simple systems. The choice of an experimental system is one of the most important decisions a biologist makes.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	108		Kandel graduated from medical school in 1956.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	112		Sensory homunculus -- Wilder Penfield's sensory map of the body as represented in the brain.		4
Kandel; Search of Memory	113		All sensory information is organized topographically in the brain in the form of precise maps of the body's sensory receptors, such as retina of the eye, basilar membrane in the ear, or skin on the body surface.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	119		Phrenology --  Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) By the late 1820s Gall's ideas and the discipline of phrenology had become extremely popular.		6
Kandel; Search of Memory	121		Broca (1824-1880) and  Wernicke (1848-1905) photos.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	123		Broca's area and Wernicke's area diagram.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	125		Wilder Penfield (1891-1976) photo		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	127		H. M.'s epilepsy		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	128		Brenda Milner (b. 1918) photo		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	130		Explicit and implicit memories are processed and stored in different regions in the brain. (diagram)		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	131		H. M.'s procedural learning.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	133		Brenda Milner's papers on HM -- how much these studies clarified our thinking about memory.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	147		Brain of Aplysia (diagram)		14
Kandel; Search of Memory	167		Three types of implicit learning: Habituation, Sensitization, Classical conditioning.  (Diagram)		20
Kandel; Search of Memory	189		Habituation and Sensitization		22
Kandel; Search of Memory	191		Aplysia's simplest behavior, the gill withdrawal reflex.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	192		How is short-term memory converted to long-term memory in the brain?		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	199		Psychologist Donald O. Hebb in his influential 1949 book, The Organization of Behavior: a neuropsychological theory.  Hebb argued that reverberatory circuits are responsible for short-term memory.		7
Kandel; Search of Memory	211		Head injuries and concussion can lead to a memory loss called retrograde amnesia.  Boxer who suffers a concussion.  Epileptic convulsion.		12
Kandel; Search of Memory	211		In its early phases, memory storage is dynamic and sensitive to disruption.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	214		Anatomical changes accompany long-term memory. (diagram)		3
Kandel; Search of Memory	217		Map of the cortex changes with experience (diagram)		3
Kandel; Search of Memory	224		Two types of circuits in the brain.   (1) mediating circuits produce behaviors, (2) modulatory circuits act on the mediating circuits, regulating the strength of their synaptic connections.		7
Kandel; Search of Memory	224		Once we knew that serotonin acted as a modulatory transmitter to enhance the release of glutamate from the presynaptic terminals of the sensory neuron, the stage was set for a biochemical analysis of memory storage.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	228		Two classes of receptors: (1) ionotropic receptors produce changes lasting milliseconds. (2) Metabotropic receptors   (e.g., serotonin receptors) act through second messengers. They produce changes that last seconds to minutes and are broadcast throughout the cell.		4
Kandel; Search of Memory	229		Biochemical steps in short-term memory. (diagram)		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	233		Molecules involved in short-term memory. (diagram)		4
Kandel; Search of Memory	241		Long-term memory formation depends upon this synthesis of new proteins.		8
Kandel; Search of Memory	241		By 1980, molecular biology had become the dominant and unifying force in biology.  Extended its influence to neural science and help create a new science of mind.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	244		Brenner and Crick in 1961 proved that the genetic code consists of a series of nucleotide triplets.		3
Kandel; Search of Memory	244		Marshall Nirenberg and Har Gohind Khorana in 1961 cracked the genetic code by describing the specific combinations of nucleotides that code for each amino acid.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	245		Half of the genes expressed in the human genome are present in much simpler invertebrate animals such as the worm C. elegans, the  fly Drosophila, and the snail Aplysia. The mouse has  more than 90 percent and the higher apes 98 percent of the coding sequences of the  human genome.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	248		Dialogue between the neuron's genes and its synapses in the formation of long-term memory.		3
Kandel; Search of Memory	256		Changes underlying short- and long-term memory in a single sensory and motor neuron. (diagram)		8
Kandel; Search of Memory	257		Jacob and Monod inferred what we now know to be a fact: that even in a complex organism like a human being, almost every gene of the genome is present in every cell of the body. Every cell has in its nucleus all of the chromosomes of the organism. In each cell type, only some of those genes are turned on, or expressed, all of the other genes are shut off or repressed.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	257		Genes are switched on and off as needed to achieve optimal functioning of the cell. Some genes are repressed for most of the lifetime of the organism; Other genes, such as those involved in the production of energy, are always expressed because the proteins they encode are essential for survival.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	257		Distinguish between effector genes and regulatory genes. Effector genes encode effector proteins such as enzymes and ion channels, which mediate specific cellular functions. Regulatory genes encode regulatory proteins, which switch the effector genes on and off.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	258		Jacob and Monod not only outlined a theory of gene regulation, they also discovered the first regulators of gene transcription. These regulators come in two forms: repressors, genes that encode the regulatory proteins that shut jeans off, and as later work showed, activators, genes that encode the regulatory proteins that turn genes on.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	259		In 1983 Eric Kandel shared with Vernon Mountcastle the Lasker Award in basic medical sciences, the most important scientific recognition awarded in the United States.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	265		Molecular mechanisms for short- and long-term facilitation. (diagram)		6
Kandel; Search of Memory	284		In 1949, psychologist D. O. Hebb had predicted that some kind of neural coincidence detector would be present in the brain during learning.: "When an axon of cell A . . . excites cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in its firing, some growth process or metabolic changes take place in one or both cells so that A's efficiency is increased."		19
Kandel; Search of Memory	307		Knowledge of space is central to behavior.		23
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		We do not have a sensory organ dedicated to space; representation of space is a quintessentially cognitive sensibility; it is the binding problem writ large.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Brain must combine inputs from seven different sensory mode modalities and then generate a complete internal representation that does not depend exclusively on any one input.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Brain commonly represents information about space in many areas and many different ways.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Egocentric coordinates (centered on the receiver)		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Where an odor or touch comes from with respect to the body.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Egocentric representation is also used by people or monkeys for orienting to a sudden noise by making an eye movement to a particular location.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Memory for space: encode an organisms position relative to the outside world and the relationship of external objects to one another.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Allocentric coordinates (centered on the world)		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Sensory maps for touch and vision in the brain, which are based on egocentric coordinates.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Egocentric maps for touch and vision discovered by Wade Marshall, Vernon Mountcastle, David Hubel, and Thorsen Wiesel.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		How sensory information comes into the hippocampus.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Hippocampus is concerned with perception of the environment and therefore represents multisensory experience.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	308		Hippocampus of rats contains a multisensory representation of extra personal space.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Place cells fire action potentials only when an animal moves into a particular location, while others fire when the animal moves to another place.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Brain breaks down its surroundings into many small overlapping areas, similar to a mosaic, each represented by activity in specific cells in the hippocampus.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Internal map develops within minutes of the rat's entrance into a new environment.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Spatial map of even a simple locale does not form instantaneously but over 10 to 15 minutes of the rat's entrance into the new environment.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Formation of the map is a learning process; practice makes perfect.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Map remain stable for weeks or even months.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Vision, touch, or smell are prewired and based on an a priori knowledge.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Spatial map is based on a combination of a priori knowledge and learning.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		A general capability for forming a spatial map is built into the mind, but the particular map is not.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Unlike neurons in a sensory system, place cells are not switched on by sensory stimulation		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Collective activity of place cells represents the location where an animal thinks it is.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		O'Keefe had discovered place cells in 1971.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	309		Bliss and Lomo had discovered long term potentiation in the hippocampus in 1973.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	310		Some of the same molecular actions responsible for long term potentiation are necessary for preserving a spatial map over a long period.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	310		Protein kinase A and protein synthesis are required for the stabilization of the spatial map.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	311		Explicit memory requires selective attention for encoding and for recall.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	311		Selective attention is widely recognized as a powerful factor in perception, action, and memory -- and the unity of conscious experience.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	311		Animals are inundated with a vast number of sensory stimuli, yet they pay attention to only one or a very small number of them, ignoring or suppressing the rest.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	311		Because of selective attention, internal representations do not replicate every detail of the external world, and sensory stimuli alone do not predict every motor action.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	311		In our moment-to-moment experience, we focus on specific sensory information and exclude the rest.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	311		Focusing of the sensory apparatus is an essential feature of all perception.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	311		Vocalization, concentration of consciousness.  It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	312		Attention also allows us to bind the various components of the spatial image into a unified whole.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	312		Four conditions that require increasing degrees of attention:  (1) basal or ambient attention is present even in the absence of further stimulation, (2) animals forage for food, (3) animals discriminate between two environments, (4) animals learn a spatial task.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	312		As a mouse walks around in its enclosure, lights and sounds, which the mouse hates, periodically come on; the only way the mouse could turn them off is to find a small unmarked goal region and sit there for a moment.  Mice learn this task very well.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	312		Even ambient attention is sufficient to allow a spatial map to form and become stable for a few hours, but such a map becomes unstable after three to six hours.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	312		In the visual system, attention enhances the response of neurons to stimuli.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	312		Modulatory pathway that had been strongly implicated in attention-related phenomena was the one mediated by dopamine.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	312		Cells that make dopamine are clustered in the mid-brain and their axons project to the hippocampus.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	313		Axons of dopamine producing neurons in the midbrain sends signals to a number of sites, including the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	313		Prefrontal cortex, which is recruited for voluntary action, signals back to the midbrain, adjusting the firing of the dopamine-producing neurons.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	313		The fact that some of the same regions of the brain that are recruited for voluntary behaviors are also recruited for attentional processes reinforces the idea that it's selective attention is critical to the unitary nature of consciousness.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	313		Involuntary attention is activated by a property of the external world -- of the stimulus -- and it is captured and according to William James, by "big things, bright things, moving things, or blood."		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	313		Voluntary attention is a specific feature of explicit memory and arises from the internal need to process stimuli that are not automatically salient.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	313		Voluntary attention is a conscious process and is likely to be initiated in the cerebral cortex.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	313		Both voluntary and involuntary attention recruit biological signals of salience, such as neuromodulatory neurotransmitters, that regulate the function or configuration of a neural network.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	314		Whether memory is implicit or explicit is the manner in which the attentional signal for salience is recruited.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	314		Conversion of short-term to long-term memory requires the activation of genes and in each case modulatory transmitters appear to carry an attentional signal marking the importance of a stimulus.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	314		In implicit memory storage, the attentional signal is recruited involuntarily (reflexively), from the bottom up.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	314		In spatial memory, dopamine appears to be recruited voluntarily from the top down.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	314		Cerebral cortex activates the cells that release dopamine, and dopamine modulates activity in the hippocampus.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	314		Similar molecular mechanisms are used for top-down and bottom-up attentional processes.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	316		Brain imaging shows activation of different areas in men and women as they think about space: the left hippocampus in men and the right parietal and right prefrontal cortex in women.		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	324		Monod-Jacob theory of gene regulation.		8
Kandel; Search of Memory	324		Walter Gilbert isolated the first gene regulator, showing that it was a protein that bound to DNA; also developed a method for sequencing DNA, which won him the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1980.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	325		Receptors for the neurotransmitter serotonin.  Almost all of the antidepressants act through serotonin.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	336		In the 1960s, psychiatric illnesses were classified into two major groups: organic illnesses and functional illnesses, a classification that dated to the 19th century.		4
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Neurological diseases and psychiatric diseases differer in several important ways.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Neurology has long been based on the knowledge of where in the brain specific diseases are located.  Of central concern to neurology -- strokes, brain tumors, degenerative diseases that produce clearly discernible structural damage.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Huntington's disease is a disorder of the caudate nucleus.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Parkinson's disease is a disorder of the substantia nigra.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Amyotropic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a disorder of motor neurons.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		A number of common neurological illnesses are caused by a single defective gene.  Once a mutation is identified, it becomes possible to express the mutant gene in mice and flies and thus to discover how the gene gives rise to disease.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Physicians no longer diagnose neurological disorders solely on the basis of behavioral symptoms.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Mental illness is a much more difficult task than locating structural damage in the brain.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Psychiatric illnesses are disturbances of higher mental functions.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Anxiety states and the various forms of depression are disorders of emotion.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	337		Schizophrenia is a disorder of thought.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	338		Emotion and thinking are complex mental processes mediated by complex neural circuitry.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	338		Although most mental illnesses have an important genetic component, they do not have straightforward inheritance patterns, because they are not caused by mutations of a single gene.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	338		No single gene for schizophrenia, no single gene for anxiety disorders, depression, or most other mental illnesses.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	338		Genetic components of mental illnesses arise from the interaction of several genes with the environment. Each gene exerts a relatively small effect, but together they create a genetic predisposition -- a potential for a disorder.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	338		Most psychiatric disorders are caused by a combination of genetic predispositions and some additional environmental factors.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	338		Identical twins have identical genes.  If one twin has Huntington's disease, so will the other.  But if one twin has schizophrenia, the other has only a 50% chance of developing the disease.		0
Kandel; Search of Memory	345		Neural pathways of learned fear. (mouse diagram)		7
Kandel; Search of Memory	347		Modifying fear pathways through learning. (diagram)		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	352		Schizophrenia is characterized by three types of symptoms.		5
Kandel; Search of Memory	377		In 1976, at age 60, Francis Crick turned to the biological nature of consciousness.		25
Kandel; Search of Memory	378		René Descartes' 17th-century ideas were still current in the 1980s, Karl Popper, the Viennese born philosopher of science, and John Eccles, the Nobel laureate neurobiologist, espoused dualism all of their lives.		1
Kandel; Search of Memory	384		Crick's focus on the claustrum.		6
Kandel; Search of Memory	386		Ekman's seven universal facial expressions (photos)		2
Kandel; Search of Memory	407		"Heil Hitler!" Vienna  (photo)		21
Kandel; Search of Memory