Changeux; Neuronal Man
Book	Page	Topic
Changeux; Neuronal Man	20	Brodmann Areas defined in 1909 on the basis of differences in thin cortical sections.
Changeux; Neuronal Man	24	1950, electron microscope	4
Changeux; Neuronal Man	28	Electron microscope magnification 1000x greater than light microscope. 10^-9 meters, nanometer.	4
Changeux; Neuronal Man	28	Synapse, Charles Sherrington, 1897; 20 nm wide gap	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	34	Acetylcholine and adrenaline, neurotransmitters	6
Changeux; Neuronal Man	39	Human brain average 1330 gm, wide variation, 1000-2000 gm.	5
Changeux; Neuronal Man	40	Absolute weight of brain is of no significance.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	41	Variation in brain weight with body weight - (graph)	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	43	Brain of fish, basal ganglia (control of movement), thalamus (relay in pathways going to hemispheres), hypothalamus (controlling basic behavior, regulating secretion of hormones), cerebellum (organ of balance) dorsal wall of posterior ventricle.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	44	Fish, highly developed sense of smell, search for food. Cerebral hemispheres very thin, specialized for olfaction.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	44	Amphibians and reptiles, similar olfactory center, ventral half of each hemisphere.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	44	Mammals and humans, olfactory center a pear-shaped lobe on lower surface of brain.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	44	In partially terrestrial amphibians and the reptiles, the senses, particularly vision, associate sensing and motion functions in the dorsal parts of the hemispheres. In humans, it becomes the hippocampus.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	44	Neocortex, projection functions of the sense organs, association functions.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	44	Schematic diagram showing the brain common to all vertebrates including humans. (diagram)	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	45	Diagram showing the expansion of the neocortex from reptiles through a primitive marsupial to man. The most primitive part of the cortex is specialized for olfaction. One primitive area goes 'inside' to form the hippocampus in mammals. Neocortex is small or absent in reptiles. Basal ganglia, ventricles.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	45	Fully mature cerebral cortex, mean surface area, 2200 cm²	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	45	Two-thirds of the cortex is hidden in sulci, or fissures.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	45	Number of convolutions, or gyri, increases from almost none in primitive animals through the primates to reach a maximum in humans.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	46	Mammalian neocortex is made up of gray and white matter.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	46	Neocortex presents a stratified structure with six parallel layers.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	46	Pyramidal cells, predominant type, outnumber all others.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	47	The main cell categories in the cerebral cortex - pyramidal cells, stellate cells, etc. - (illustration)	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	48	Pyramidal cells, apical dendrite, basal dendrite; spines ~20k per pyramidal cell cover the dendrites. Axon of pyramidal cell runs downward with collateral branches.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	48	Pyramidal cell axons, major output, or efferent, pathway from the cerebral cortex.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	48	Stellate cells, interneurons, communication between pyramidal cells.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	48	Pyramidal and stellate cells are not distributed uniformly throughout the cortical thickness.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	48	Layer I, no pyramidal neurons.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	48	Layers II, III, V, VI, lots of pyramidal cells.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	48	Layer IV, stellate cells sandwiched in.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	49	Cellular architecture of the cortex varies from one area to another - sensory cortex; motor cortex. - (illustration)	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	50	Cerebral cortex -- made up of a small number of cellular elements repeated many times.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	50	Same categories of cell are found at all stages of evolution from primitive mammals to humans.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	50	No cell categories are specific to the human cortex.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	50	In spite of the relative uniformity in the organization of the cerebral cortex, there are some differences between areas.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	50	Cortex is not equally thick everywhere, and the density of cells and the distribution of different neuron categories through the six layers vary from one area to another.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	50	The thin primary visual projection area (Brodmann's area 17) contains abundant stellate cells.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	50	The remarkably thick motor cortex (Brodmann's area 4) has many large pyramidal cells.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	51	Categories of pyramidal and stellate cells are the same from mouse to humans.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	51	Total number of cells under a given surface area does not vary in the course of mammalian evolution.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	51	146,000 neurons per square millimeter of cortical surface in all mammalian species.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	52	There must be about 10¹⁴ to 10¹⁵ synapses in the human cortex.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	54	Distribution of cell types varies from one cortical layer to another.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	54	Whatever the sensory modality, axons stop on their way principally in the thalamus. Thalamic neurons then continue to the cortex.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	55	Axons from the thalamus are not the only incoming, or afferents, to the cortex. Fibers coming from the cortex itself constitute another important input.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	55	Each cortical area receives a considerable number of axons coming from other areas of the same or opposite hemisphere. Association fibers, associate several areas.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	55	Input and output pathways of the cerebral cortex. - (illustration)	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	56	Thalamic fibers stop in well-defined layers, particularly layer IV and part of layer III. Layer IV can be considered the main gateway to the cortex.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	56	Pyramidal cell axons form the main output of the cortex.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	56	First output of the cortex is back to the cortex itself, either on the same side or opposite side; association connections; other outgoing (efferent axons) end outside the cortex to subcortical levels.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	56	It seems the function of many cortical signals is to feed back information to the cortex itself.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	56	Three major outputs from the cortex: (1) cortex itself, (2) thalamus, (3) outputs of motor commands, which are expressed as behavior.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	57	Main entries to the cortex are the axons coming from the neurons of the thalamus. Some fibers leave the cortex and return to the thalamus. Feedback circuits.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	57	Pyramidal cells that send axons to the thalamus are located in the deepest layer of the cortex (layer VI) or in the lower part of Layer V.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	57	Pyramidal cells sending axons to nonthalamic subcortical centers are situated in layer V.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	57	Axons that project back to the cortex come from layers II and III.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	57	Cortical connections conform to a number of organizational guidelines common to the entire cortex.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	57	General principles of wiring are the same throughout the cortex, regardless of the functional specialization. The network consists of the same cell categories and of similar numbers of cells in each category.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	62	Cerebellar cortex in higher vertebrates, including humans, contains five types of cells repeated many times.	5
Changeux; Neuronal Man	62	Only the Purkinje cells send their axons out of the cortex.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	62	Purkinje cells form only one layer.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	64	Pyramidal cells of layer V of the motor cortex; axons go as far as the spinal cord; giant cell bodies.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	65	Major event in the evolution of the mammalian brain, expansion of the neocortex.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	65	Mouse to human, Expansion of the neocortex; increase in the total number of neurons; number of cellular elements per unit of surface area has not changed.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	66	Cortex of human 3x thicker than mouse, not uniform in all layers; particularly affects layers III and V, the main source of cortical-to-cortical connections.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	66	Mouse to human, surface area of cortex expands, area of association cortex becomes relatively greater than that of the primary sensory and motor areas.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	66	Mouse to human, increase in the mean number of connections per neuron, burgeoning of the dendritic and axonal trees.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	66	Density of synapses per cubic millimeter of cortex is the same order in rat as in man.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	66	No sudden qualitative reorganization marks the passage from "animal" brain to human, continuous quantitative evolution.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	68	Electric eel discharge, 300v, 0.5 amp	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	68	EEG 1929, a few tens of microvolts, oscillate at low frequency.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	68	Alpha waves, person resting, eyes closed, ~10 Hz, relatively high amplitude.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	68	Beta waves, waking state, eyes open, frequency more than double alpha waves, lower amplitude.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	69	EEG recordings - alpha waves 10 Hz, awake and resting; beta activity; delta waves, slow, high-amplitude waves, slow-wave sleep; REM sleep, paradoxical sleep, eyes move - (illustration from recording)	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	69	Delta waves, slow, high-amplitude waves, (3-5 Hz, several hundred microvolts), slow-wave sleep.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	70	Deep sleep, delta waves, 3 to 5 Hz, amplitude several hundred microvolts	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	70	REM sleep, intense electrical activity, brief bursts of high frequency, perhaps related to dreams.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	70	Alpha waves and delta waves have a repetitive form not suggestive of information.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	70	Beta waves, no obvious regularity; perhaps suggestive of information.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	72	Alpha rhythm may result from an autorhythmic activity in closed loops between cortical and thalamic neurons.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	72	The global electrical events recorded in the cerebral cortex, electrical activity of individual neurons and glial cells, including generation of impulses by the neurons, propagation along axons, transmission at synapses.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	109	In the hypothalamus and the brainstem, dopamine synapses can be regarded as "pleasure" or "hedonic" synapses.	37
Changeux; Neuronal Man	111	Limbic system, inherited from primitive mammals.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	111	EEG recordings from various parts of the brain during orgasm. Slow, high-amplitude waves similar to those in epilepsy appear, principally in the septum.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	112	Orgasm for man and for woman is the supreme ecstasy, intense waves of pleasure and emotion.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	113	Acetylcholine in the septum of a female provoked intense sexual pleasure, culminating in repeated orgasm.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	115	The human brain is characterized by the expanded development of the neocortex. The structures of the limbic system, hypothalamus, and brainstem have changed little.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	130	Ambiguous figure. Wine glass or Bikini?	15
Changeux; Neuronal Man	137	The mental object is identified as the physical state created by correlated, transient activity, both electrical and chemical, in a large population or 'assembly' of neurons in several specific cortical areas.	7
Changeux; Neuronal Man	138	A 'concept' is a memory object that contains only a small sensory component, because it is the result of neuronal activity in association areas such as the frontal lobe (where multiple sensory or motor modalities are mixed) or in a large number of areas in different regions of the brain.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	138	The image is an autonomous and transient memory object, not requiring direct interaction with the environment.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	139	Resonance manifests itself by potentiation of firing, dissonance by its extinction.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	142	When a synapse is stimulated repeatedly, it habituates; the number of quanta of neurotransmitter released decreases.	3
Changeux; Neuronal Man	143	Entry of calcium into the nerve terminal may regulate the efficiency of the synapse by increasing the probability of the release of neurotransmitter.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	143	Desensitization	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	146	Auditory hallucinations	3
Changeux; Neuronal Man	146	Hallucinogenic drugs, LSD, visual hallucinations	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	147	Sleep lowers the level of consciousness, but is totally unrelated to death. Sleep is an active process, composed of a complex sequence of cerebral activities.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	147	Albert Hofmann synthesized LSD.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	147	LSD binds to the same sites as serotonin, also binds to the receptor of dopamine.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	149	The reticular formation of the brainstem controls global aspects of cerebral functioning.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	154	Attention manages the relationship of the brain with the environment.	5
Changeux; Neuronal Man	156	Nuclei in the reticular formation participate in the fixation of attention.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	156	Dopamine neurons in the brainstem are concerned with the control of attention, in addition to their involvement in the 'pleasure synapses' that control motivation.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	157	Most drugs that attenuate the symptoms of schizophrenia are related to the dopamine receptor.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	158	Emotions involve neurons in the hypothalamus and the limbic system.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	173	Pleiotropism - genetics term used to designate the multiplicity of effects of a single mutation.	15
Changeux; Neuronal Man	180	Noam Chomsky in 1980s claimed that a genetically determined capacity of language specifies a class of humanly accessible grammar.	7
Changeux; Neuronal Man	197	Five stages in the embryonic development of the cerebral cortex from the wall of the neural tube. - (illustration)	17
Changeux; Neuronal Man	200	Mouse whiskers	3
Changeux; Neuronal Man	206	Once a nerve cell has become differentiated, it does not divide anymore. A single nucleus, with the same DNA, must serve an entire lifetime for the formation and maintenance of tens of thousands of synapses.	6
Changeux; Neuronal Man	206	Identical twins develop from the division of the same fertilized ovum; genetically identical.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	206	Human genome, ~20 thousand genes; human cerebral cortex, ~10¹⁵ synapses.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	208	Variability in neural organization of identical twins. - (illustration)	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	209	Consanguineous mice have a large number of their genes in common due to inbreeding for fifty years or more; compare individuals, same genome.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	213	Under an electron microscope, a growth cone looks somewhat like a tiny amoeba.	4
Changeux; Neuronal Man	215	When growth cones reach target, movements suddenly cease. Immobilized cone is transformed in a few hours into a nerve terminal, gradually takes the appearance of a mature synapse.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	215	Behavior of the growth cone, genetic cost is modest, great variability in the arrangement of the first contacts with the target; very little precision in the assembly of the network.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	215	Epigenetic mechanisms tune it up, create the final set of neural connections.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	227	Theory of epigenesis by selective stabilization of synapses.	12
Changeux; Neuronal Man	227	Principal features of the anatomical and functional organization of the nervous system are preserved from one generation to another; determinism of a set of genes that make up the genetic envelope.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	227	During development, axonal and dendritic trees branch and spread exuberantly; redundancy is temporary; regressive phenomena rapidly intervene; neurons die; many dendritic and axonal branches are 'pruned'.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	227	Impulses travel through the neuronal network even at very early stages of formation. They begin spontaneously, but are later evoked by the interaction of the newborn with the environment.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	228	Hypothesis of epigenesis by selective stabilization. - (1) growth, (2) transient redundancy, (3) selective stabilization	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	228	Epigenesis by Selective Stabilization, (1) growth, (2) transient redundancy, (3) selective stabilization, - (diagram)	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	229	Evolution of the connective state of each synaptic contact is governed by the signals received on the mass of dendrites on the postsynaptic cell.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	229	Activity of the postsynaptic cell regulates the stability of the synapse.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	229	Epigenetic development of neuronal network is controlled by the activity of the developing network.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	229	Selective stabilization of a particular set of synaptic contacts during the stage of maximum diversity.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	229	Variability in patterns of connection accounts for phenotypic variability between isogenic individuals.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	233	Small number of genetic determinants with the genetic envelope explains how innervation develops.	4
Changeux; Neuronal Man	233	Cortical development is at least partially regulated by activity.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	235	Inactivity causes preservation of redundant connections.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	235	Cortical development is subject to significant epigenetic regulation through nervous activity.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	235	Epigenetic regulation intervenes in the intrinsic differentiation of a given cortical area; development of a 'micro-organization'.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	235	Especially in humans, remarkable series of brain areas specialized for 'cooperative understanding' in a social group; language.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	236	90 percent of humans use the right hand for writing and difficult manual tasks.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	236	Negative' handprints outlined on walls of caves of Cro-Magnon humans are left hands in 80 percent of cases.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	242	Development of the human brain continues long after birth.	6
Changeux; Neuronal Man	242	Most synapses of the cerebral cortex are formed after birth.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	244	Writing requires a long apprenticeship, which is much easier for a child than for an adult.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	247	Experience, which is never the same from one individual to another, leads to a different neuronal and synaptic topology.	3
Changeux; Neuronal Man	247	Epigenesis ensures the reproducibility of function despite anatomical variations.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	248	Mental exercise, either spontaneous or evoked, contributes to the fine tuning of cerebral cortex connections.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	248	10 thousand or so synapses per cortical neuron are not established immediately. They proliferate in successive waves from birth to puberty in humans. With each wave there is a transient redundancy and selective stabilization. The result is a series of critical periods when activity exercises a regulatory effect.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	249	Growth of axonal and dendritic trees is innate; the selective stabilization of synapses defines acquired characteristics.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	249	Intimate association of growth and epigenesis and their alternation over time.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	249	System becomes more and more ordered as it receives instructions from the environment.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	249	Epigenetic selection acts on preformed synaptic substrates.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	249	To learn is to stabilize synaptic combinations and to eliminate the surplus.
Changeux; Neuronal Man	251	Observe chromosomes of a human under the microscope, Blood sample is taken and white cells cultured, mitosis, chromosomes separate, stained and identified.	2
Changeux; Neuronal Man	277	Humans are born with a brain whose maximum number of cells is already fixed.	26
Changeux; Neuronal Man	278	Diversification through recombinations within neuronal assemblies, followed by selection through resonance.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	281	Epigenesis that follows birth; activity in the developing network governs the stabilization of some synapses and the elimination of others.	3
Changeux; Neuronal Man	282	Nervous system is unusual in that its total number of neurons is fixed at birth.	1
Changeux; Neuronal Man	282	Neurons that are destroyed after birth are never replaced.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	282	Axons and dendrites preserve a remarkable capacity to regenerate even in the adult.
Changeux; Neuronal Man	282	Brain of Homo sapiens probably differentiated in the African plains, in populations of a few hundred thousand individuals.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man	282	Transient redundancy followed by selective stabilization.	0
Changeux; Neuronal Man